{"error":"Too few arguments to function pageRender(), 3 passed in \/home\/intagri\/public_html\/libs\/articles\/articles.php on line 513 and exactly 4 expected","line":329,"file":"\/home\/intagri\/public_html\/libs\/general\/pageRender.php","code":0,"trace":[{"file":"\/home\/intagri\/public_html\/libs\/articles\/articles.php","line":513,"function":"pageRender","args":[{},"article\/articleFinishBuying.html",{"userInfo":{"firstNames":"","lastNames":"","email":"","phone":"","points":0,"newsletter":1},"articleInfo":{"article_ID":239,"views":52879,"title":"Sexo en la Milpa: ¿Cómo se lleva a cabo?","fb_title":"","link":"sexo-en-la-milpa-como-se-lleva-a-cabo","desc":"Técnicamente hablando, la polinización generalmente es exitosa (el polen se pone en contacto con los cabellos del jilote); sin embargo, la fertilización puede no llegar a lograrse. Una mala fertilización da como resultado mazorcas “chimuelas” o lo que es lo mismo, un pobre llenado de mazorca. La germinación de los granos de polen ocurre casi inmediatamente después del aterrizaje de éstos sobre el cabello del jilote o estigma receptor.","fb_desc":"","thumb":"\/assets\/images\/articulos\/categoria1\/9Cereales\/art250-sexo-milpa\/Polen-01.jpg","fb_thumb":"","category":9,"related":"","keywords":"maíz, fenología, fisiología, antera, mazorca, estigma, grano, semilla, polen, polinización, fertilización, fecundación, gametos, ovario, monoica, dioica, jilote.","pdfLink":"Articulos\/Cereales\/25. Sexo en la Milpa.pdf","text":"<div class=\"row\">\r\n<div class=\"col-xs-12\">\r\n\r\n\t\t\t<p style=\"text-align:right\"><strong>Ing. Jos&eacute; Delgado Rodr&iacute;guez<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n\t\t\t<p style=\"text-align:right\">Profesor del curso Fenolog&iacute;a y Fisiolog&iacute;a del Ma&iacute;z Intagri, 2016<\/p>\r\n\r\n\t\t\t<div class=\"row\">\r\n<div class=\"col-xs-12 col-md-8\">\r\n \r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align:justify\"> Para comprender mejor los posibles problemas que pueden ocurrir durante la polinizaci&oacute;n,&nbsp; primero debemos entender c&oacute;mo se desarrolla &eacute;ste importante proceso. Hay que recordar que el ma&iacute;z desarrolla tanto flores masculinas como femeninas en la misma planta (este h&aacute;bito floral se conoce con el nombre de monoico; para los curiosos). Cuando la flor masculina madura, emergen entonces las anteras de las florecillas localizadas en la espiga de la planta y el polen se dispersa al abrirse las glumas que envuelven las anteras.\r\n<\/p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align:justify\"><span style=\"color:#008000\"><strong>La liberaci&oacute;n o diseminaci&oacute;n del polen<\/strong>\r\n<\/p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align:justify\"> Las <strong><em>anteras<\/em> <\/strong>son esas peque&ntilde;as estructuras parecidas a sacos que cuelgan de las espigas durante la floraci&oacute;n de la planta de ma&iacute;z.&nbsp; Vistas bajo un lente de aumento, las anteras se parecen al doble ca&ntilde;&oacute;n de una escopeta. No hay que confundir a las anteras con el polen en s&iacute;. El polen est&aacute; contenido dentro de las anteras.&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<\/p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align:justify\"> El <strong><em>polen<\/em><\/strong>; ese &ldquo;polvo amarillo&rdquo; que encontramos en cantidades abundantes en las parcelas de ma&iacute;z durante la &eacute;poca de floraci&oacute;n es producido en cantidades que oscilan entre los dos y cinco millones de granos de polen por planta. Un grano de polen es extremadamente peque&ntilde;o (casi microsc&oacute;pico), de forma esf&eacute;rica y de un color amarillo transparente.\r\n<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"col-xs-12 col-md-4\"><img alt=\" El Maiz \" class=\"center-block img-responsive\" src=\"\/assets\/images\/articulos\/categoria1\/9Cereales\/art250-sexo-milpa\/Maiz.jpg \" \/>\r\n<table border=\"1\" class=\"table table-responsive\">\r\n\t<tbody>\r\n\t\t<tr>\r\n\t\t\t<td style=\"background-color: #0B3B0B; text-align:left\">\r\n\t\t\t<p style=\"text-align:justify\"><span style=\"color:#FFFFFF\"><strong> Figura 1. El maíz es una planta monoica, tiene ambos sexos en la misma planta, pero en diferente sitio de la planta.  \r\n <\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/td>\r\n\t\t<\/tr>\r\n\t<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n\r\n\t\t\t<p style=\"text-align:justify\">En tan s&oacute;lo tres minutos puede liberarse el total del polen contenido en una sola antera. Para que una espiga individual libere todo su polen, se pueden requerir alrededor de siete d&iacute;as, aunque el mayor volumen de polen se diseminar&aacute; durante el transcurso del segundo o tercer d&iacute;a despu&eacute;s de que se inicie la apertura de las anteras. Se pueden requerir hasta 14 d&iacute;as para completar el proceso de liberaci&oacute;n de polen en una parcela; considerando la variabilidad natural que puede darse en un sembrad&iacute;o, en relaci&oacute;n al desarrollo individual de las plantas de ma&iacute;z sembradas en el mismo.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\r\n\r\n\t\t\t<p style=\"text-align:justify\">Si las anteras est&aacute;n h&uacute;medas, &eacute;stas no se abrir&aacute;n y el polen no ser&aacute; liberado. As&iacute;; en una ma&ntilde;ana t&iacute;pica, despu&eacute;s de un fuerte roc&iacute;o nocturno, la diseminaci&oacute;n del polen no comenzar&aacute; hasta que el roc&iacute;o se seque y las anteras se abran. En condiciones clim&aacute;ticas fr&iacute;as, con nubosidad y alta humedad relativa, tambi&eacute;n se retrasa el inicio de la diseminaci&oacute;n o liberaci&oacute;n del polen. Igualmente, el polen no se libera bajo la lluvia, por lo cual a los agricultores no debe preocuparles que el polen vaya a perderse durante una fuerte tormenta.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\t\t\t<div class=\"row\">\r\n<div class=\"col-xs-12 col-md-8\">\r\n \r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align:justify\"> <strong>Los cabellos del elote o pelos del &ldquo;jilote&rdquo;<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align:justify\"> Los <strong><em>cabellos<\/em><\/strong> que salen del jilote son <strong><em>estigmas<\/em><\/strong> funcionales de la flor femenina. Cada grano potencial (ovario) de la mazorca, desarrolla su propio cabello o estigma que debe polinizarse para que el &oacute;vulo se fertilice y se desarrolle hasta formar la semilla o grano de ma&iacute;z. En promedio una mazorca tiene el potencial de producir hasta 1,000 granos por mazorca, aunque en la pr&aacute;ctica y al momento de la cosecha una mazorca desarrolla &ldquo;tan solo&rdquo; entre 400 y 600 granos por mazorca.\r\n<\/p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align:justify\"> El <strong>alargamiento o elongaci&oacute;n de los cabellos<\/strong> comienza entre los 7 y los 10 d&iacute;as previos al brote del pelo a trav&eacute;s del totomoxtle u hojas que envuelven al jilote. La completa exposici&oacute;n de los pelos del jilote puede requerir entre 2 y hasta 7 d&iacute;as. Los cabellos de la base del jilote son los que normalmente salen primero, mientras que los de la punta son los &uacute;ltimos en salir.\r\n<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"col-xs-12 col-md-4\"><img alt=\" Anteras y liberacion \" class=\"center-block img-responsive\" src=\"\/assets\/images\/articulos\/categoria1\/9Cereales\/art250-sexo-milpa\/anteras.jpg \" \/>\r\n<table border=\"1\" class=\"table table-responsive\">\r\n\t<tbody>\r\n\t\t<tr>\r\n\t\t\t<td style=\"background-color: #0B3B0B; text-align:left\">\r\n\t\t\t<p style=\"text-align:justify\"><span style=\"color:#FFFFFF\"><strong> Figura 2. Anteras y liberación de polen en el cultivo de maíz. \r\n <\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/td>\r\n\t\t<\/tr>\r\n\t<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n\r\n\t\t\t<p style=\"text-align:justify\"><span style=\"color:#008000\"><strong>Polinizaci&oacute;n y fertilizaci&oacute;n<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n\t\t\t<p style=\"text-align:justify\">Para quienes realmente les preocupan la sem&aacute;ntica, revisaremos dos definiciones que son importantes en la actividad sexual que se da en un&nbsp; campo de ma&iacute;z. <em>La <strong><u>Polinizaci&oacute;n<\/u><\/strong><\/em> <em>es el proceso de la transferencia de los granos de polen a los cabellos (estigmas), ya sea por la acci&oacute;n del viento o por la mediaci&oacute;n de los insectos<\/em>, mientras que <em>la <strong><u>Fertilizaci&oacute;n<\/u><\/strong> es la uni&oacute;n de los gametos masculinos del polen con los gametos femeninos del ovario.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n\t\t\t<p style=\"text-align:justify\">T&eacute;cnicamente hablando, la <em>polinizaci&oacute;n<\/em> generalmente es exitosa (el polen se pone en contacto con los cabellos del jilote); sin embargo, la <em>fertilizaci&oacute;n<\/em> puede no llegar a lograrse. Una mala fertilizaci&oacute;n da como resultado mazorcas &ldquo;chimuelas&rdquo; o lo que es lo mismo, un pobre llenado de mazorca.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\t\t\t\r\n\t\t\t<div class=\"row\">\r\n<div class=\"col-xs-12 col-md-8\">\r\n \r\n<p style=\"text-align:justify\">La germinaci&oacute;n de los granos de polen ocurre casi inmediatamente despu&eacute;s del aterrizaje de &eacute;stos sobre el cabello del jilote o estigma receptor.&nbsp; Es entonces cuando comienza el desarrollo y crecimiento del tubo pol&iacute;nico, que es el canal a trav&eacute;s del cual el material gen&eacute;tico contenido dentro del grano de polen es trasladado a trav&eacute;s del estigma para fertilizar al &oacute;vulo contenido dentro del ovario, lo cual generalmente ocurre dentro de las primeras 24 horas siguientes a la polinizaci&oacute;n. Los granos de polen pueden depositarse y germinar, sobre cualquier punto a lo largo de la extensi&oacute;n del cabello expuesto.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align:justify\"> Los da&ntilde;os en los estigmas que algunos insectos, como la <em>Diabr&oacute;tica<\/em> puedan causar, no s&oacute;lo afectar&aacute;n el tejido directamente da&ntilde;ado, sino que tambi&eacute;n afectar&aacute;n una cierta longitud del cabello remanente. En t&eacute;rminos generales; la longitud de los cabellos en las mazorcas da&ntilde;adas deber&aacute; ser de por lo menos un cent&iacute;metro y medio, para asegurar que suficiente tejido quede expuesto y lograr as&iacute; la polinizaci&oacute;n.\r\n<\/p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align:justify\"> El per&iacute;odo de receptividad de los cabellos del jilote para poder ofrecerle a los granos de polen una superficie propicia para su germinaci&oacute;n tiene una duraci&oacute;n aproximada de alrededor de 10 d&iacute;as a partir del brote de los mismos. Despu&eacute;s de los 10 d&iacute;as, la receptividad disminuye con rapidez. El alargamiento o elongaci&oacute;n del cabello continuar&aacute;&nbsp; hasta que se logre la polinizaci&oacute;n, aunque eventualmente este cesar&aacute;, a medida que envejezca el cabello que no haya sido fertilizado.\r\n<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"col-xs-12 col-md-4\"><img alt=\" Estigmas \" class=\"center-block img-responsive\" src=\"\/assets\/images\/articulos\/categoria1\/9Cereales\/art250-sexo-milpa\/estigmas.jpg \" \/>\r\n<table border=\"1\" class=\"table table-responsive\">\r\n\t<tbody>\r\n\t\t<tr>\r\n\t\t\t<td style=\"background-color: #0B3B0B; text-align:left\">\r\n\t\t\t<p style=\"text-align:justify\"><span style=\"color:#FFFFFF\"><strong> Figura 3. Estigmas funcionales de la flor femenina. Los cabellos de la base del jilote son los que normalmente salen primero, mientras que los de la punta son los últimos en salir.\r\n <\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align:justify\"><span style=\"color:#FFFFFF\"><strong> Fuente: University of Missouri.\r\n <\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/td>\r\n\t\t<\/tr>\r\n\t<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n\r\n\t\t\t<\/td>\r\n\t\t<\/tr>\r\n\t<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n","has_cost":0,"creation":"2016-05-13 21:16:51","updated":"2019-04-23 19:39:52","published":"2016-05-16 11:13:26","cost":0,"badge":"mxn"},"availPoints":0,"articleCosts":[],"conversion":[0.004400000000000000265065747129256124026142060756683349609375,1,5634,19],"guest":true,"countries":[{"country_ID":1,"name":"Argentina","iso2":"ar","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":2,"name":"Belice","iso2":"bz","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":3,"name":"Bolivia","iso2":"bo","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":4,"name":"Canada","iso2":"ca","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":5,"name":"Chile","iso2":"cl","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":6,"name":"Colombia","iso2":"co","badge":"COP","conversion":0.004400000000000000265065747129256124026142060756683349609375},{"country_ID":7,"name":"Costa Rica","iso2":"cr","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":8,"name":"Cuba","iso2":"cu","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":9,"name":"Ecuador","iso2":"ec","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":10,"name":"El Salvador","iso2":"sv","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":11,"name":"Estados Unidos","iso2":"us","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":12,"name":"Guatemala","iso2":"gt","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":13,"name":"Guyana","iso2":"gy","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":14,"name":"Guayana Francesa","iso2":"gf","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":15,"name":"Honduras","iso2":"hn","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":16,"name":"México","iso2":"mx","badge":"MXN","conversion":1},{"country_ID":17,"name":"Nicaragua","iso2":"ni","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":18,"name":"Panamá","iso2":"pa","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":19,"name":"Paraguay","iso2":"py","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":20,"name":"Perú","iso2":"pe","badge":"PEN","conversion":5634},{"country_ID":21,"name":"Puerto Rico","iso2":"pr","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":22,"name":"Rep. Dominicana","iso2":"do","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":23,"name":"Surinam","iso2":"sr","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":24,"name":"Uruguay","iso2":"uy","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":25,"name":"Venezuela","iso2":"ve","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":26,"name":"Brasil","iso2":"br","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":27,"name":"España","iso2":"es","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":28,"name":"Australia","iso2":"au","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":29,"name":"Bahamas","iso2":"bs","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":30,"name":"Camerún","iso2":"cm","badge":"USD","conversion":19},{"country_ID":31,"name":"Italia","iso2":"it","badge":"USD","conversion":19}],"provinces":[{"province_ID":1,"country_ID":1,"name":"Buenos Aires"},{"province_ID":2,"country_ID":1,"name":"Buenos Aires Capital"},{"province_ID":3,"country_ID":1,"name":"Catamarca"},{"province_ID":4,"country_ID":1,"name":"Chaco"},{"province_ID":5,"country_ID":1,"name":"Chubut"},{"province_ID":6,"country_ID":1,"name":"Cordoba"},{"province_ID":7,"country_ID":1,"name":"Corrientes"},{"province_ID":8,"country_ID":1,"name":"Entre Rios"},{"province_ID":9,"country_ID":1,"name":"Formosa"},{"province_ID":10,"country_ID":1,"name":"Jujuy"},{"province_ID":11,"country_ID":1,"name":"La Pampa"},{"province_ID":12,"country_ID":1,"name":"La Rioja"},{"province_ID":13,"country_ID":1,"name":"Mendoza"},{"province_ID":14,"country_ID":1,"name":"Misiones"},{"province_ID":15,"country_ID":1,"name":"Neuquen"},{"province_ID":16,"country_ID":1,"name":"Rio Negro"},{"province_ID":17,"country_ID":1,"name":"Salta"},{"province_ID":18,"country_ID":1,"name":"San Juan"},{"province_ID":19,"country_ID":1,"name":"San Luis"},{"province_ID":20,"country_ID":1,"name":"Santa Cruz"},{"province_ID":21,"country_ID":1,"name":"Santa Fe"},{"province_ID":22,"country_ID":1,"name":"Santiago del Estero"},{"province_ID":23,"country_ID":1,"name":"Tierra del Fuego"},{"province_ID":24,"country_ID":1,"name":"Tucuman"},{"province_ID":25,"country_ID":2,"name":"Belice"},{"province_ID":26,"country_ID":2,"name":"Cayo"},{"province_ID":27,"country_ID":2,"name":"Corozal"},{"province_ID":28,"country_ID":2,"name":"Orange Walk"},{"province_ID":29,"country_ID":2,"name":"Stann Creek"},{"province_ID":30,"country_ID":2,"name":"Toledo"},{"province_ID":31,"country_ID":3,"name":"Chuquisaca"},{"province_ID":32,"country_ID":3,"name":"Cochabamba"},{"province_ID":33,"country_ID":3,"name":"Beni"},{"province_ID":34,"country_ID":3,"name":"La Paz"},{"province_ID":35,"country_ID":3,"name":"Oruro"},{"province_ID":36,"country_ID":3,"name":"Pando"},{"province_ID":37,"country_ID":3,"name":"Potosi"},{"province_ID":38,"country_ID":3,"name":"Santa Cruz"},{"province_ID":39,"country_ID":3,"name":"Tarija"},{"province_ID":40,"country_ID":4,"name":"Alberta"},{"province_ID":41,"country_ID":4,"name":"British Columbia"},{"province_ID":42,"country_ID":4,"name":"Manitoba"},{"province_ID":43,"country_ID":4,"name":"New Brunswick"},{"province_ID":44,"country_ID":4,"name":"Newfoundland and Labrador"},{"province_ID":45,"country_ID":4,"name":"Nova Scotia"},{"province_ID":46,"country_ID":4,"name":"Ontario"},{"province_ID":47,"country_ID":4,"name":"Prince Edward Island"},{"province_ID":48,"country_ID":4,"name":"Quebec"},{"province_ID":49,"country_ID":4,"name":"Saskatchewan"},{"province_ID":50,"country_ID":4,"name":"Northwest Territories"},{"province_ID":51,"country_ID":4,"name":"Nunavut"},{"province_ID":52,"country_ID":4,"name":"Yukon"},{"province_ID":53,"country_ID":5,"name":"Aysen"},{"province_ID":54,"country_ID":5,"name":"Antofagasta"},{"province_ID":55,"country_ID":5,"name":"Araucania"},{"province_ID":56,"country_ID":5,"name":"Atacama"},{"province_ID":57,"country_ID":5,"name":"Bio-Bio"},{"province_ID":58,"country_ID":5,"name":"Coquimbo"},{"province_ID":59,"country_ID":5,"name":"O'Higgins"},{"province_ID":60,"country_ID":5,"name":"Los Lagos"},{"province_ID":61,"country_ID":5,"name":"Magallanes y la Antartica Chilena"},{"province_ID":62,"country_ID":5,"name":"Maule"},{"province_ID":63,"country_ID":5,"name":"Santiago Region Metropolitana"},{"province_ID":64,"country_ID":5,"name":"Tarapaca"},{"province_ID":65,"country_ID":5,"name":"Valparaiso"},{"province_ID":66,"country_ID":6,"name":"Amazonas"},{"province_ID":67,"country_ID":6,"name":"Antioquia"},{"province_ID":68,"country_ID":6,"name":"Arauca"},{"province_ID":69,"country_ID":6,"name":"Atlantico"},{"province_ID":70,"country_ID":6,"name":"Bogota District Capital"},{"province_ID":71,"country_ID":6,"name":"Bolivar"},{"province_ID":72,"country_ID":6,"name":"Boyaca"},{"province_ID":73,"country_ID":6,"name":"Caldas"},{"province_ID":74,"country_ID":6,"name":"Caqueta"},{"province_ID":75,"country_ID":6,"name":"Casanare"},{"province_ID":76,"country_ID":6,"name":"Cauca"},{"province_ID":77,"country_ID":6,"name":"Cesar"},{"province_ID":78,"country_ID":6,"name":"Choco"},{"province_ID":79,"country_ID":6,"name":"Cordoba"},{"province_ID":80,"country_ID":6,"name":"Cundinamarca"},{"province_ID":81,"country_ID":6,"name":"Guainia"},{"province_ID":82,"country_ID":6,"name":"Guaviare"},{"province_ID":83,"country_ID":6,"name":"Huila"},{"province_ID":84,"country_ID":6,"name":"La Guajira"},{"province_ID":85,"country_ID":6,"name":"Magdalena"},{"province_ID":86,"country_ID":6,"name":"Meta"},{"province_ID":87,"country_ID":6,"name":"Narino"},{"province_ID":88,"country_ID":6,"name":"Norte de Santander"},{"province_ID":89,"country_ID":6,"name":"Putumayo"},{"province_ID":90,"country_ID":6,"name":"Quindio"},{"province_ID":91,"country_ID":6,"name":"Risaralda"},{"province_ID":92,"country_ID":6,"name":"San Andres & Providencia"},{"province_ID":93,"country_ID":6,"name":"Santander"},{"province_ID":94,"country_ID":6,"name":"Sucre"},{"province_ID":95,"country_ID":6,"name":"Tolima"},{"province_ID":96,"country_ID":6,"name":"Valle del Cauca"},{"province_ID":97,"country_ID":6,"name":"Vaupes"},{"province_ID":98,"country_ID":6,"name":"Vichada"},{"province_ID":99,"country_ID":7,"name":"Alajuela"},{"province_ID":100,"country_ID":7,"name":"Cartago"},{"province_ID":101,"country_ID":7,"name":"Guanacaste"},{"province_ID":102,"country_ID":7,"name":"Heredia"},{"province_ID":103,"country_ID":7,"name":"Limon"},{"province_ID":104,"country_ID":7,"name":"Puntarenas"},{"province_ID":105,"country_ID":7,"name":"San Jose"},{"province_ID":106,"country_ID":8,"name":"Camaguey"},{"province_ID":107,"country_ID":8,"name":"Ciego de Avila"},{"province_ID":108,"country_ID":8,"name":"Cienfuegos"},{"province_ID":109,"country_ID":8,"name":"Ciudad de La Habana"},{"province_ID":110,"country_ID":8,"name":"Granma"},{"province_ID":111,"country_ID":8,"name":"Guantanamo"},{"province_ID":112,"country_ID":8,"name":"Holguin"},{"province_ID":113,"country_ID":8,"name":"Isla de la Juventud"},{"province_ID":114,"country_ID":8,"name":"La Habana"},{"province_ID":115,"country_ID":8,"name":"Las Tunas"},{"province_ID":116,"country_ID":8,"name":"Matanzas"},{"province_ID":117,"country_ID":8,"name":"Pinar del Rio"},{"province_ID":118,"country_ID":8,"name":"Sancti Spiritus"},{"province_ID":119,"country_ID":8,"name":"Santiago de Cuba"},{"province_ID":120,"country_ID":8,"name":"Villa Clara"},{"province_ID":121,"country_ID":9,"name":"Azuay"},{"province_ID":122,"country_ID":9,"name":"Bolivar"},{"province_ID":123,"country_ID":9,"name":"Canar"},{"province_ID":124,"country_ID":9,"name":"Carchi"},{"province_ID":125,"country_ID":9,"name":"Chimborazo"},{"province_ID":126,"country_ID":9,"name":"Cotopaxi"},{"province_ID":127,"country_ID":9,"name":"El Oro"},{"province_ID":128,"country_ID":9,"name":"Esmeraldas"},{"province_ID":129,"country_ID":9,"name":"Galapagos"},{"province_ID":130,"country_ID":9,"name":"Guayas"},{"province_ID":131,"country_ID":9,"name":"Imbabura"},{"province_ID":132,"country_ID":9,"name":"Loja"},{"province_ID":133,"country_ID":9,"name":"Los Rios"},{"province_ID":134,"country_ID":9,"name":"Manabi"},{"province_ID":135,"country_ID":9,"name":"Morona-Santiago"},{"province_ID":136,"country_ID":9,"name":"Napo"},{"province_ID":137,"country_ID":9,"name":"Orellana"},{"province_ID":138,"country_ID":9,"name":"Pastaza"},{"province_ID":139,"country_ID":9,"name":"Pichincha"},{"province_ID":140,"country_ID":9,"name":"Sucumbios"},{"province_ID":141,"country_ID":9,"name":"Tungurahua"},{"province_ID":142,"country_ID":9,"name":"Zamora-Chinchipe"},{"province_ID":143,"country_ID":10,"name":"Ahuachapan"},{"province_ID":144,"country_ID":10,"name":"Cabanas"},{"province_ID":145,"country_ID":10,"name":"Chalatenango"},{"province_ID":146,"country_ID":10,"name":"Cuscatlan"},{"province_ID":147,"country_ID":10,"name":"La Libertad"},{"province_ID":148,"country_ID":10,"name":"La Paz"},{"province_ID":149,"country_ID":10,"name":"La Union"},{"province_ID":150,"country_ID":10,"name":"Morazan"},{"province_ID":151,"country_ID":10,"name":"San Miguel"},{"province_ID":152,"country_ID":10,"name":"San Salvador"},{"province_ID":153,"country_ID":10,"name":"Santa Ana"},{"province_ID":154,"country_ID":10,"name":"San Vicente"},{"province_ID":155,"country_ID":10,"name":"Sonsonate"},{"province_ID":156,"country_ID":10,"name":"Usulutan"},{"province_ID":157,"country_ID":11,"name":"Alabama"},{"province_ID":158,"country_ID":11,"name":"Alaska"},{"province_ID":159,"country_ID":11,"name":"Arizona"},{"province_ID":160,"country_ID":11,"name":"Arkansas"},{"province_ID":161,"country_ID":11,"name":"California"},{"province_ID":162,"country_ID":11,"name":"Colorado"},{"province_ID":163,"country_ID":11,"name":"Connecticut"},{"province_ID":164,"country_ID":11,"name":"Delaware"},{"province_ID":165,"country_ID":11,"name":"District of Columbia"},{"province_ID":166,"country_ID":11,"name":"Florida"},{"province_ID":167,"country_ID":11,"name":"Georgia"},{"province_ID":168,"country_ID":11,"name":"Hawaii"},{"province_ID":169,"country_ID":11,"name":"Idaho"},{"province_ID":170,"country_ID":11,"name":"Illinois"},{"province_ID":171,"country_ID":11,"name":"Indiana"},{"province_ID":172,"country_ID":11,"name":"Iowa"},{"province_ID":173,"country_ID":11,"name":"Kansas"},{"province_ID":174,"country_ID":11,"name":"Kentucky"},{"province_ID":175,"country_ID":11,"name":"Louisiana"},{"province_ID":176,"country_ID":11,"name":"Maine"},{"province_ID":177,"country_ID":11,"name":"Maryland"},{"province_ID":178,"country_ID":11,"name":"Massachusetts"},{"province_ID":179,"country_ID":11,"name":"Michigan"},{"province_ID":180,"country_ID":11,"name":"Minnesota"},{"province_ID":181,"country_ID":11,"name":"Mississippi"},{"province_ID":182,"country_ID":11,"name":"Missouri"},{"province_ID":183,"country_ID":11,"name":"Montana"},{"province_ID":184,"country_ID":11,"name":"Nebraska"},{"province_ID":185,"country_ID":11,"name":"Nevada"},{"province_ID":186,"country_ID":11,"name":"New Hampshire"},{"province_ID":187,"country_ID":11,"name":"New Jersey"},{"province_ID":188,"country_ID":11,"name":"New Mexico"},{"province_ID":189,"country_ID":11,"name":"New York"},{"province_ID":190,"country_ID":11,"name":"North Carolina"},{"province_ID":191,"country_ID":11,"name":"North Dakota"},{"province_ID":192,"country_ID":11,"name":"Ohio"},{"province_ID":193,"country_ID":11,"name":"Oklahoma"},{"province_ID":194,"country_ID":11,"name":"Oregon"},{"province_ID":195,"country_ID":11,"name":"Pennsylvania"},{"province_ID":196,"country_ID":11,"name":"Rhode Island"},{"province_ID":197,"country_ID":11,"name":"South Carolina"},{"province_ID":198,"country_ID":11,"name":"South Dakota"},{"province_ID":199,"country_ID":11,"name":"Tennessee"},{"province_ID":200,"country_ID":11,"name":"Texas"},{"province_ID":201,"country_ID":11,"name":"Utah"},{"province_ID":202,"country_ID":11,"name":"Vermont"},{"province_ID":203,"country_ID":11,"name":"Virginia"},{"province_ID":204,"country_ID":11,"name":"Washington"},{"province_ID":205,"country_ID":11,"name":"West Virginia"},{"province_ID":206,"country_ID":11,"name":"Wisconsin"},{"province_ID":207,"country_ID":11,"name":"Wyoming"},{"province_ID":208,"country_ID":12,"name":"Alta Verapaz"},{"province_ID":209,"country_ID":12,"name":"Baja Verapaz"},{"province_ID":210,"country_ID":12,"name":"Chimaltenango"},{"province_ID":211,"country_ID":12,"name":"Chiquimula"},{"province_ID":212,"country_ID":12,"name":"El Progreso"},{"province_ID":213,"country_ID":12,"name":"Escuintla"},{"province_ID":214,"country_ID":12,"name":"Guatemala"},{"province_ID":215,"country_ID":12,"name":"Huehuetenango"},{"province_ID":216,"country_ID":12,"name":"Izabal"},{"province_ID":217,"country_ID":12,"name":"Jalapa"},{"province_ID":218,"country_ID":12,"name":"Jutiapa"},{"province_ID":219,"country_ID":12,"name":"Peten"},{"province_ID":220,"country_ID":12,"name":"Quetzaltenango"},{"province_ID":221,"country_ID":12,"name":"Quiche"},{"province_ID":222,"country_ID":12,"name":"Retalhuleu"},{"province_ID":223,"country_ID":12,"name":"Sacatepequez"},{"province_ID":224,"country_ID":12,"name":"San Marcos"},{"province_ID":225,"country_ID":12,"name":"Santa Rosa"},{"province_ID":226,"country_ID":12,"name":"Solola"},{"province_ID":227,"country_ID":12,"name":"Suchitepequez"},{"province_ID":228,"country_ID":12,"name":"Totonicapan"},{"province_ID":229,"country_ID":12,"name":"Zacapa"},{"province_ID":230,"country_ID":13,"name":"Barima-Waini"},{"province_ID":231,"country_ID":13,"name":"Cuyuni-Mazaruni"},{"province_ID":232,"country_ID":13,"name":"Demerara-Mahaica"},{"province_ID":233,"country_ID":13,"name":"East Berbice-Corentyne"},{"province_ID":234,"country_ID":13,"name":"Essequibo Islands-West Demerara"},{"province_ID":235,"country_ID":13,"name":"Mahaica-Berbice"},{"province_ID":236,"country_ID":13,"name":"Pomeroon-Supenaam"},{"province_ID":237,"country_ID":13,"name":"Potaro-Siparuni"},{"province_ID":238,"country_ID":13,"name":"Upper Demerara-Berbice"},{"province_ID":239,"country_ID":13,"name":"Upper Takutu-Upper Essequibo"},{"province_ID":240,"country_ID":14,"name":"Distrito de Cayenne"},{"province_ID":241,"country_ID":14,"name":"Distrito de Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni"},{"province_ID":242,"country_ID":15,"name":"Atlantida"},{"province_ID":243,"country_ID":15,"name":"Choluteca"},{"province_ID":244,"country_ID":15,"name":"Colon"},{"province_ID":245,"country_ID":15,"name":"Comayagua"},{"province_ID":246,"country_ID":15,"name":"Copan"},{"province_ID":247,"country_ID":15,"name":"Cortes"},{"province_ID":248,"country_ID":15,"name":"El Paraiso"},{"province_ID":249,"country_ID":15,"name":"Francisco Morazan"},{"province_ID":250,"country_ID":15,"name":"Gracias a Dios"},{"province_ID":251,"country_ID":15,"name":"Intibuca"},{"province_ID":252,"country_ID":15,"name":"Islas de la Bahia"},{"province_ID":253,"country_ID":15,"name":"La Paz"},{"province_ID":254,"country_ID":15,"name":"Lempira"},{"province_ID":255,"country_ID":15,"name":"Ocotepeque"},{"province_ID":256,"country_ID":15,"name":"Olancho"},{"province_ID":257,"country_ID":15,"name":"Santa Barbara"},{"province_ID":258,"country_ID":15,"name":"Valle"},{"province_ID":259,"country_ID":15,"name":"Yoro"},{"province_ID":260,"country_ID":16,"name":"Aguascalientes"},{"province_ID":261,"country_ID":16,"name":"Baja California"},{"province_ID":262,"country_ID":16,"name":"Baja California Sur"},{"province_ID":263,"country_ID":16,"name":"Campeche"},{"province_ID":264,"country_ID":16,"name":"Chiapas"},{"province_ID":265,"country_ID":16,"name":"Chihuahua"},{"province_ID":266,"country_ID":16,"name":"Coahuila de Zaragoza"},{"province_ID":267,"country_ID":16,"name":"Colima"},{"province_ID":268,"country_ID":16,"name":"Distrito Federal"},{"province_ID":269,"country_ID":16,"name":"Durango"},{"province_ID":270,"country_ID":16,"name":"Guanajuato"},{"province_ID":271,"country_ID":16,"name":"Guerrero"},{"province_ID":272,"country_ID":16,"name":"Hidalgo"},{"province_ID":273,"country_ID":16,"name":"Jalisco"},{"province_ID":274,"country_ID":16,"name":"Mexico"},{"province_ID":275,"country_ID":16,"name":"Michoacan de Ocampo"},{"province_ID":276,"country_ID":16,"name":"Morelos"},{"province_ID":277,"country_ID":16,"name":"Nayarit"},{"province_ID":278,"country_ID":16,"name":"Nuevo Leon"},{"province_ID":279,"country_ID":16,"name":"Oaxaca"},{"province_ID":280,"country_ID":16,"name":"Puebla"},{"province_ID":281,"country_ID":16,"name":"Queretaro de Arteaga"},{"province_ID":282,"country_ID":16,"name":"Quintana Roo"},{"province_ID":283,"country_ID":16,"name":"San Luis Potosi"},{"province_ID":284,"country_ID":16,"name":"Sinaloa"},{"province_ID":285,"country_ID":16,"name":"Sonora"},{"province_ID":286,"country_ID":16,"name":"Tabasco"},{"province_ID":287,"country_ID":16,"name":"Tamaulipas"},{"province_ID":288,"country_ID":16,"name":"Tlaxcala"},{"province_ID":289,"country_ID":16,"name":"Veracruz-Llave"},{"province_ID":290,"country_ID":16,"name":"Yucatan"},{"province_ID":291,"country_ID":16,"name":"Zacatecas"},{"province_ID":292,"country_ID":17,"name":"Atlantico Norte"},{"province_ID":293,"country_ID":17,"name":"Atlantico Sur"},{"province_ID":294,"country_ID":17,"name":"Boaco"},{"province_ID":295,"country_ID":17,"name":"Carazo"},{"province_ID":296,"country_ID":17,"name":"Chinandega"},{"province_ID":297,"country_ID":17,"name":"Chontales"},{"province_ID":298,"country_ID":17,"name":"Esteli"},{"province_ID":299,"country_ID":17,"name":"Granada"},{"province_ID":300,"country_ID":17,"name":"Jinotega"},{"province_ID":301,"country_ID":17,"name":"Leon"},{"province_ID":302,"country_ID":17,"name":"Madriz"},{"province_ID":303,"country_ID":17,"name":"Managua"},{"province_ID":304,"country_ID":17,"name":"Masaya"},{"province_ID":305,"country_ID":17,"name":"Matagalpa"},{"province_ID":306,"country_ID":17,"name":"Nueva Segovia"},{"province_ID":307,"country_ID":17,"name":"Rio San Juan"},{"province_ID":308,"country_ID":17,"name":"Rivas"},{"province_ID":309,"country_ID":18,"name":"Bocas del Toro"},{"province_ID":310,"country_ID":18,"name":"Chiriqui"},{"province_ID":311,"country_ID":18,"name":"Cocle"},{"province_ID":312,"country_ID":18,"name":"Colon"},{"province_ID":313,"country_ID":18,"name":"Darien"},{"province_ID":314,"country_ID":18,"name":"Herrera"},{"province_ID":315,"country_ID":18,"name":"Los Santos"},{"province_ID":316,"country_ID":18,"name":"Panama"},{"province_ID":317,"country_ID":18,"name":"San Blas"},{"province_ID":318,"country_ID":18,"name":"Veraguas"},{"province_ID":319,"country_ID":19,"name":"Alto Paraguay"},{"province_ID":320,"country_ID":19,"name":"Alto Parana"},{"province_ID":321,"country_ID":19,"name":"Amambay"},{"province_ID":322,"country_ID":19,"name":"Asuncion"},{"province_ID":323,"country_ID":19,"name":"Boqueron"},{"province_ID":324,"country_ID":19,"name":"Caaguazu"},{"province_ID":325,"country_ID":19,"name":"Caazapa"},{"province_ID":326,"country_ID":19,"name":"Canindeyu"},{"province_ID":327,"country_ID":19,"name":"Central"},{"province_ID":328,"country_ID":19,"name":"Concepcion"},{"province_ID":329,"country_ID":19,"name":"Cordillera"},{"province_ID":330,"country_ID":19,"name":"Guaira"},{"province_ID":331,"country_ID":19,"name":"Itapua"},{"province_ID":332,"country_ID":19,"name":"Misiones"},{"province_ID":333,"country_ID":19,"name":"Neembucu"},{"province_ID":334,"country_ID":19,"name":"Paraguari"},{"province_ID":335,"country_ID":19,"name":"Presidente Hayes"},{"province_ID":336,"country_ID":19,"name":"San Pedro"},{"province_ID":337,"country_ID":20,"name":"Amazonas"},{"province_ID":338,"country_ID":20,"name":"Ancash"},{"province_ID":339,"country_ID":20,"name":"Apurimac"},{"province_ID":340,"country_ID":20,"name":"Arequipa"},{"province_ID":341,"country_ID":20,"name":"Ayacucho"},{"province_ID":342,"country_ID":20,"name":"Cajamarca"},{"province_ID":343,"country_ID":20,"name":"Callao"},{"province_ID":344,"country_ID":20,"name":"Cusco"},{"province_ID":345,"country_ID":20,"name":"Huancavelica"},{"province_ID":346,"country_ID":20,"name":"Huanuco"},{"province_ID":347,"country_ID":20,"name":"Ica"},{"province_ID":348,"country_ID":20,"name":"Junin"},{"province_ID":349,"country_ID":20,"name":"La Libertad"},{"province_ID":350,"country_ID":20,"name":"Lambayeque"},{"province_ID":351,"country_ID":20,"name":"Lima"},{"province_ID":352,"country_ID":20,"name":"Loreto"},{"province_ID":353,"country_ID":20,"name":"Madre de Dios"},{"province_ID":354,"country_ID":20,"name":"Moquegua"},{"province_ID":355,"country_ID":20,"name":"Pasco"},{"province_ID":356,"country_ID":20,"name":"Piura"},{"province_ID":357,"country_ID":20,"name":"Puno"},{"province_ID":358,"country_ID":20,"name":"San Martin"},{"province_ID":359,"country_ID":20,"name":"Tacna"},{"province_ID":360,"country_ID":20,"name":"Tumbes"},{"province_ID":361,"country_ID":20,"name":"Ucayali"},{"province_ID":362,"country_ID":21,"name":"Puerto Rico"},{"province_ID":363,"country_ID":22,"name":"Azua"},{"province_ID":364,"country_ID":22,"name":"Baoruco"},{"province_ID":365,"country_ID":22,"name":"Barahona"},{"province_ID":366,"country_ID":22,"name":"Dajabon"},{"province_ID":367,"country_ID":22,"name":"Distrito Nacional"},{"province_ID":368,"country_ID":22,"name":"Duarte"},{"province_ID":369,"country_ID":22,"name":"Elias Pina"},{"province_ID":370,"country_ID":22,"name":"El Seibo"},{"province_ID":371,"country_ID":22,"name":"Espaillat"},{"province_ID":372,"country_ID":22,"name":"Hato Mayor"},{"province_ID":373,"country_ID":22,"name":"Independencia"},{"province_ID":374,"country_ID":22,"name":"La Altagracia"},{"province_ID":375,"country_ID":22,"name":"La Romana"},{"province_ID":376,"country_ID":22,"name":"La Vega"},{"province_ID":377,"country_ID":22,"name":"Maria Trinidad Sanchez"},{"province_ID":378,"country_ID":22,"name":"Monsenor Nouel"},{"province_ID":379,"country_ID":22,"name":"Monte Cristi"},{"province_ID":380,"country_ID":22,"name":"Monte Plata"},{"province_ID":381,"country_ID":22,"name":"Pedernales"},{"province_ID":382,"country_ID":22,"name":"Peravia"},{"province_ID":383,"country_ID":22,"name":"Puerto Plata"},{"province_ID":384,"country_ID":22,"name":"Salcedo"},{"province_ID":385,"country_ID":22,"name":"Samana"},{"province_ID":386,"country_ID":22,"name":"Sanchez Ramirez"},{"province_ID":387,"country_ID":22,"name":"San Cristobal"},{"province_ID":388,"country_ID":22,"name":"San Jose de Ocoa"},{"province_ID":389,"country_ID":22,"name":"San Juan"},{"province_ID":390,"country_ID":22,"name":"San Pedro de Macoris"},{"province_ID":391,"country_ID":22,"name":"Santiago"},{"province_ID":392,"country_ID":22,"name":"Santiago Rodriguez"},{"province_ID":393,"country_ID":22,"name":"Santo Domingo"},{"province_ID":394,"country_ID":22,"name":"Valverde"},{"province_ID":395,"country_ID":23,"name":"Brokopondo"},{"province_ID":396,"country_ID":23,"name":"Commewijne"},{"province_ID":397,"country_ID":23,"name":"Coronie"},{"province_ID":398,"country_ID":23,"name":"Marowijne"},{"province_ID":399,"country_ID":23,"name":"Nickerie"},{"province_ID":400,"country_ID":23,"name":"Para"},{"province_ID":401,"country_ID":23,"name":"Paramaribo"},{"province_ID":402,"country_ID":23,"name":"Saramacca"},{"province_ID":403,"country_ID":23,"name":"Sipaliwini"},{"province_ID":404,"country_ID":23,"name":"Wanica"},{"province_ID":405,"country_ID":24,"name":"Artigas"},{"province_ID":406,"country_ID":24,"name":"Canelones"},{"province_ID":407,"country_ID":24,"name":"Cerro Largo"},{"province_ID":408,"country_ID":24,"name":"Colonia"},{"province_ID":409,"country_ID":24,"name":"Durazno"},{"province_ID":410,"country_ID":24,"name":"Flores"},{"province_ID":411,"country_ID":24,"name":"Florida"},{"province_ID":412,"country_ID":24,"name":"Lavalleja"},{"province_ID":413,"country_ID":24,"name":"Maldonado"},{"province_ID":414,"country_ID":24,"name":"Montevideo"},{"province_ID":415,"country_ID":24,"name":"Paysandu"},{"province_ID":416,"country_ID":24,"name":"Rio Negro"},{"province_ID":417,"country_ID":24,"name":"Rivera"},{"province_ID":418,"country_ID":24,"name":"Rocha"},{"province_ID":419,"country_ID":24,"name":"Salto"},{"province_ID":420,"country_ID":24,"name":"San Jose"},{"province_ID":421,"country_ID":24,"name":"Soriano"},{"province_ID":422,"country_ID":24,"name":"Tacuarembo"},{"province_ID":423,"country_ID":24,"name":"Treinta y Tres"},{"province_ID":424,"country_ID":25,"name":"Amazonas"},{"province_ID":425,"country_ID":25,"name":"Anzoategui"},{"province_ID":426,"country_ID":25,"name":"Apure"},{"province_ID":427,"country_ID":25,"name":"Aragua"},{"province_ID":428,"country_ID":25,"name":"Barinas"},{"province_ID":429,"country_ID":25,"name":"Bolivar"},{"province_ID":430,"country_ID":25,"name":"Carabobo"},{"province_ID":431,"country_ID":25,"name":"Cojedes"},{"province_ID":432,"country_ID":25,"name":"Delta Amacuro"},{"province_ID":433,"country_ID":25,"name":"Dependencias Federales"},{"province_ID":434,"country_ID":25,"name":"Distrito Federal"},{"province_ID":435,"country_ID":25,"name":"Falcon"},{"province_ID":436,"country_ID":25,"name":"Guarico"},{"province_ID":437,"country_ID":25,"name":"Lara"},{"province_ID":438,"country_ID":25,"name":"Merida"},{"province_ID":439,"country_ID":25,"name":"Miranda"},{"province_ID":440,"country_ID":25,"name":"Monagas"},{"province_ID":441,"country_ID":25,"name":"Nueva Esparta"},{"province_ID":442,"country_ID":25,"name":"Portuguesa"},{"province_ID":443,"country_ID":25,"name":"Sucre"},{"province_ID":444,"country_ID":25,"name":"Tachira"},{"province_ID":445,"country_ID":25,"name":"Trujillo"},{"province_ID":446,"country_ID":25,"name":"Vargas"},{"province_ID":447,"country_ID":25,"name":"Yaracuy"},{"province_ID":448,"country_ID":25,"name":"Zulia"},{"province_ID":449,"country_ID":26,"name":"Acre"},{"province_ID":450,"country_ID":26,"name":"Alagoas"},{"province_ID":451,"country_ID":26,"name":"Amapá"},{"province_ID":452,"country_ID":26,"name":"Amazonas"},{"province_ID":453,"country_ID":26,"name":"Bahia"},{"province_ID":454,"country_ID":26,"name":"Ceará"},{"province_ID":455,"country_ID":26,"name":"Distrito Federal"},{"province_ID":456,"country_ID":26,"name":"Espírito Santo"},{"province_ID":457,"country_ID":26,"name":"Goiás"},{"province_ID":458,"country_ID":26,"name":"Maranhão"},{"province_ID":459,"country_ID":26,"name":"Mato Grosso"},{"province_ID":460,"country_ID":26,"name":"Mato Grosso do Sul"},{"province_ID":461,"country_ID":26,"name":"Minas Gerais"},{"province_ID":462,"country_ID":26,"name":"Pará"},{"province_ID":463,"country_ID":26,"name":"Paraíba"},{"province_ID":464,"country_ID":26,"name":"Paraná"},{"province_ID":465,"country_ID":26,"name":"Pernambuco"},{"province_ID":466,"country_ID":26,"name":"Piauí"},{"province_ID":467,"country_ID":26,"name":"Rio de Janeiro"},{"province_ID":468,"country_ID":26,"name":"Rio Grande do Norte"},{"province_ID":469,"country_ID":26,"name":"Rio Grande do Sul"},{"province_ID":470,"country_ID":26,"name":"Rondônia"},{"province_ID":471,"country_ID":26,"name":"Roraima"},{"province_ID":472,"country_ID":26,"name":"Santa Catarina"},{"province_ID":473,"country_ID":26,"name":"São Paulo"},{"province_ID":474,"country_ID":26,"name":"Sergipe"},{"province_ID":475,"country_ID":26,"name":"Tocantins"},{"province_ID":476,"country_ID":27,"name":"Álava"},{"province_ID":477,"country_ID":27,"name":"Albacete"},{"province_ID":478,"country_ID":27,"name":"Alicante"},{"province_ID":479,"country_ID":27,"name":"Almería"},{"province_ID":480,"country_ID":27,"name":"Principado de Asturias"},{"province_ID":481,"country_ID":27,"name":"Ávila"},{"province_ID":482,"country_ID":27,"name":"Badajoz"},{"province_ID":483,"country_ID":27,"name":"Barcelona"},{"province_ID":484,"country_ID":27,"name":"Burgos"},{"province_ID":485,"country_ID":27,"name":"Cáceres"},{"province_ID":486,"country_ID":27,"name":"Cádiz"},{"province_ID":487,"country_ID":27,"name":"Cantabria"},{"province_ID":488,"country_ID":27,"name":"Castellón"},{"province_ID":489,"country_ID":27,"name":"Ciudad Real"},{"province_ID":490,"country_ID":27,"name":"Córdoba"},{"province_ID":491,"country_ID":27,"name":"La Coruña"},{"province_ID":492,"country_ID":27,"name":"Cuenca"},{"province_ID":493,"country_ID":27,"name":"Gerona"},{"province_ID":494,"country_ID":27,"name":"Granada"},{"province_ID":495,"country_ID":27,"name":"Guadalajara"},{"province_ID":496,"country_ID":27,"name":"Guipúzcoa"},{"province_ID":497,"country_ID":27,"name":"Huelva"},{"province_ID":498,"country_ID":27,"name":"Huesca"},{"province_ID":499,"country_ID":27,"name":"Islas Baleares"},{"province_ID":500,"country_ID":27,"name":"Jaén"},{"province_ID":501,"country_ID":27,"name":"León"},{"province_ID":502,"country_ID":27,"name":"Lérida"},{"province_ID":503,"country_ID":27,"name":"Lugo"},{"province_ID":504,"country_ID":27,"name":"Madrid"},{"province_ID":505,"country_ID":27,"name":"Málaga"},{"province_ID":506,"country_ID":27,"name":"Región de Murcia"},{"province_ID":507,"country_ID":27,"name":"Comunidad Foral de Navarra"},{"province_ID":508,"country_ID":27,"name":"Orense"},{"province_ID":509,"country_ID":27,"name":"Palencia"},{"province_ID":510,"country_ID":27,"name":"Las Palmas"},{"province_ID":511,"country_ID":27,"name":"Pontevedra"},{"province_ID":512,"country_ID":27,"name":"La Rioja"},{"province_ID":513,"country_ID":27,"name":"Salamanca"},{"province_ID":514,"country_ID":27,"name":"Segovia"},{"province_ID":515,"country_ID":27,"name":"Sevilla"},{"province_ID":516,"country_ID":27,"name":"Soria"},{"province_ID":517,"country_ID":27,"name":"Tarragona"},{"province_ID":518,"country_ID":27,"name":"Santa Cruz de Tenerife"},{"province_ID":519,"country_ID":27,"name":"Teruel"},{"province_ID":520,"country_ID":27,"name":"Toledo"},{"province_ID":521,"country_ID":27,"name":"Valencia"},{"province_ID":522,"country_ID":27,"name":"Valladolid"},{"province_ID":523,"country_ID":27,"name":"Vizcaya"},{"province_ID":524,"country_ID":27,"name":"Zamora"},{"province_ID":525,"country_ID":27,"name":"Zaragoza"},{"province_ID":526,"country_ID":27,"name":"Melilla"},{"province_ID":527,"country_ID":27,"name":"Ceuta"},{"province_ID":528,"country_ID":28,"name":"Australia"},{"province_ID":529,"country_ID":29,"name":"Bahamas"},{"province_ID":530,"country_ID":30,"name":"Camerún"},{"province_ID":531,"country_ID":31,"name":"Italia"}],"occupations":["Agricultor,Productor Primario","Asesor Técnico","Vendedor de Fertilizantes","Vendedor de Agroquímicos","Vendedor de Semillas","Vendedor de Insumos Orgánicos","Vendedor de Agroinsumos en General","Profesor o Investigador","Estudiante","Sector Gobierno o Financiero","Otro","Productor Ganadero"],"siteKey":"6LcoBxwTAAAAAIHGYfRC7q_PWI1Ixdpc63kgLXLw"}]},{"file":"\/home\/intagri\/public_html\/libs\/articles\/articles.php","line":220,"function":"articleSignup","args":[{"article_ID":239,"views":52879,"title":"Sexo en la Milpa: ¿Cómo se lleva a cabo?","fb_title":"","link":"sexo-en-la-milpa-como-se-lleva-a-cabo","desc":"Técnicamente hablando, la polinización generalmente es exitosa (el polen se pone en contacto con los cabellos del jilote); sin embargo, la fertilización puede no llegar a lograrse. Una mala fertilización da como resultado mazorcas “chimuelas” o lo que es lo mismo, un pobre llenado de mazorca. La germinación de los granos de polen ocurre casi inmediatamente después del aterrizaje de éstos sobre el cabello del jilote o estigma receptor.","fb_desc":"","thumb":"\/assets\/images\/articulos\/categoria1\/9Cereales\/art250-sexo-milpa\/Polen-01.jpg","fb_thumb":"","category":9,"related":"","keywords":"maíz, fenología, fisiología, antera, mazorca, estigma, grano, semilla, polen, polinización, fertilización, fecundación, gametos, ovario, monoica, dioica, jilote.","pdfLink":"Articulos\/Cereales\/25. Sexo en la Milpa.pdf","text":"<div class=\"row\">\r\n<div class=\"col-xs-12\">\r\n\r\n\t\t\t<p style=\"text-align:right\"><strong>Ing. Jos&eacute; Delgado Rodr&iacute;guez<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n\t\t\t<p style=\"text-align:right\">Profesor del curso Fenolog&iacute;a y Fisiolog&iacute;a del Ma&iacute;z Intagri, 2016<\/p>\r\n\r\n\t\t\t<div class=\"row\">\r\n<div class=\"col-xs-12 col-md-8\">\r\n \r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align:justify\"> Para comprender mejor los posibles problemas que pueden ocurrir durante la polinizaci&oacute;n,&nbsp; primero debemos entender c&oacute;mo se desarrolla &eacute;ste importante proceso. Hay que recordar que el ma&iacute;z desarrolla tanto flores masculinas como femeninas en la misma planta (este h&aacute;bito floral se conoce con el nombre de monoico; para los curiosos). Cuando la flor masculina madura, emergen entonces las anteras de las florecillas localizadas en la espiga de la planta y el polen se dispersa al abrirse las glumas que envuelven las anteras.\r\n<\/p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align:justify\"><span style=\"color:#008000\"><strong>La liberaci&oacute;n o diseminaci&oacute;n del polen<\/strong>\r\n<\/p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align:justify\"> Las <strong><em>anteras<\/em> <\/strong>son esas peque&ntilde;as estructuras parecidas a sacos que cuelgan de las espigas durante la floraci&oacute;n de la planta de ma&iacute;z.&nbsp; Vistas bajo un lente de aumento, las anteras se parecen al doble ca&ntilde;&oacute;n de una escopeta. No hay que confundir a las anteras con el polen en s&iacute;. El polen est&aacute; contenido dentro de las anteras.&nbsp;&nbsp;\r\n<\/p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align:justify\"> El <strong><em>polen<\/em><\/strong>; ese &ldquo;polvo amarillo&rdquo; que encontramos en cantidades abundantes en las parcelas de ma&iacute;z durante la &eacute;poca de floraci&oacute;n es producido en cantidades que oscilan entre los dos y cinco millones de granos de polen por planta. Un grano de polen es extremadamente peque&ntilde;o (casi microsc&oacute;pico), de forma esf&eacute;rica y de un color amarillo transparente.\r\n<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"col-xs-12 col-md-4\"><img alt=\" El Maiz \" class=\"center-block img-responsive\" src=\"\/assets\/images\/articulos\/categoria1\/9Cereales\/art250-sexo-milpa\/Maiz.jpg \" \/>\r\n<table border=\"1\" class=\"table table-responsive\">\r\n\t<tbody>\r\n\t\t<tr>\r\n\t\t\t<td style=\"background-color: #0B3B0B; text-align:left\">\r\n\t\t\t<p style=\"text-align:justify\"><span style=\"color:#FFFFFF\"><strong> Figura 1. El maíz es una planta monoica, tiene ambos sexos en la misma planta, pero en diferente sitio de la planta.  \r\n <\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/td>\r\n\t\t<\/tr>\r\n\t<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n\r\n\t\t\t<p style=\"text-align:justify\">En tan s&oacute;lo tres minutos puede liberarse el total del polen contenido en una sola antera. Para que una espiga individual libere todo su polen, se pueden requerir alrededor de siete d&iacute;as, aunque el mayor volumen de polen se diseminar&aacute; durante el transcurso del segundo o tercer d&iacute;a despu&eacute;s de que se inicie la apertura de las anteras. Se pueden requerir hasta 14 d&iacute;as para completar el proceso de liberaci&oacute;n de polen en una parcela; considerando la variabilidad natural que puede darse en un sembrad&iacute;o, en relaci&oacute;n al desarrollo individual de las plantas de ma&iacute;z sembradas en el mismo.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\r\n\r\n\t\t\t<p style=\"text-align:justify\">Si las anteras est&aacute;n h&uacute;medas, &eacute;stas no se abrir&aacute;n y el polen no ser&aacute; liberado. As&iacute;; en una ma&ntilde;ana t&iacute;pica, despu&eacute;s de un fuerte roc&iacute;o nocturno, la diseminaci&oacute;n del polen no comenzar&aacute; hasta que el roc&iacute;o se seque y las anteras se abran. En condiciones clim&aacute;ticas fr&iacute;as, con nubosidad y alta humedad relativa, tambi&eacute;n se retrasa el inicio de la diseminaci&oacute;n o liberaci&oacute;n del polen. Igualmente, el polen no se libera bajo la lluvia, por lo cual a los agricultores no debe preocuparles que el polen vaya a perderse durante una fuerte tormenta.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\t\t\t<div class=\"row\">\r\n<div class=\"col-xs-12 col-md-8\">\r\n \r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align:justify\"> <strong>Los cabellos del elote o pelos del &ldquo;jilote&rdquo;<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align:justify\"> Los <strong><em>cabellos<\/em><\/strong> que salen del jilote son <strong><em>estigmas<\/em><\/strong> funcionales de la flor femenina. Cada grano potencial (ovario) de la mazorca, desarrolla su propio cabello o estigma que debe polinizarse para que el &oacute;vulo se fertilice y se desarrolle hasta formar la semilla o grano de ma&iacute;z. En promedio una mazorca tiene el potencial de producir hasta 1,000 granos por mazorca, aunque en la pr&aacute;ctica y al momento de la cosecha una mazorca desarrolla &ldquo;tan solo&rdquo; entre 400 y 600 granos por mazorca.\r\n<\/p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align:justify\"> El <strong>alargamiento o elongaci&oacute;n de los cabellos<\/strong> comienza entre los 7 y los 10 d&iacute;as previos al brote del pelo a trav&eacute;s del totomoxtle u hojas que envuelven al jilote. La completa exposici&oacute;n de los pelos del jilote puede requerir entre 2 y hasta 7 d&iacute;as. Los cabellos de la base del jilote son los que normalmente salen primero, mientras que los de la punta son los &uacute;ltimos en salir.\r\n<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"col-xs-12 col-md-4\"><img alt=\" Anteras y liberacion \" class=\"center-block img-responsive\" src=\"\/assets\/images\/articulos\/categoria1\/9Cereales\/art250-sexo-milpa\/anteras.jpg \" \/>\r\n<table border=\"1\" class=\"table table-responsive\">\r\n\t<tbody>\r\n\t\t<tr>\r\n\t\t\t<td style=\"background-color: #0B3B0B; text-align:left\">\r\n\t\t\t<p style=\"text-align:justify\"><span style=\"color:#FFFFFF\"><strong> Figura 2. Anteras y liberación de polen en el cultivo de maíz. \r\n <\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/td>\r\n\t\t<\/tr>\r\n\t<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n\r\n\t\t\t<p style=\"text-align:justify\"><span style=\"color:#008000\"><strong>Polinizaci&oacute;n y fertilizaci&oacute;n<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n\t\t\t<p style=\"text-align:justify\">Para quienes realmente les preocupan la sem&aacute;ntica, revisaremos dos definiciones que son importantes en la actividad sexual que se da en un&nbsp; campo de ma&iacute;z. <em>La <strong><u>Polinizaci&oacute;n<\/u><\/strong><\/em> <em>es el proceso de la transferencia de los granos de polen a los cabellos (estigmas), ya sea por la acci&oacute;n del viento o por la mediaci&oacute;n de los insectos<\/em>, mientras que <em>la <strong><u>Fertilizaci&oacute;n<\/u><\/strong> es la uni&oacute;n de los gametos masculinos del polen con los gametos femeninos del ovario.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n\t\t\t<p style=\"text-align:justify\">T&eacute;cnicamente hablando, la <em>polinizaci&oacute;n<\/em> generalmente es exitosa (el polen se pone en contacto con los cabellos del jilote); sin embargo, la <em>fertilizaci&oacute;n<\/em> puede no llegar a lograrse. Una mala fertilizaci&oacute;n da como resultado mazorcas &ldquo;chimuelas&rdquo; o lo que es lo mismo, un pobre llenado de mazorca.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\t\t\t\r\n\t\t\t<div class=\"row\">\r\n<div class=\"col-xs-12 col-md-8\">\r\n \r\n<p style=\"text-align:justify\">La germinaci&oacute;n de los granos de polen ocurre casi inmediatamente despu&eacute;s del aterrizaje de &eacute;stos sobre el cabello del jilote o estigma receptor.&nbsp; Es entonces cuando comienza el desarrollo y crecimiento del tubo pol&iacute;nico, que es el canal a trav&eacute;s del cual el material gen&eacute;tico contenido dentro del grano de polen es trasladado a trav&eacute;s del estigma para fertilizar al &oacute;vulo contenido dentro del ovario, lo cual generalmente ocurre dentro de las primeras 24 horas siguientes a la polinizaci&oacute;n. Los granos de polen pueden depositarse y germinar, sobre cualquier punto a lo largo de la extensi&oacute;n del cabello expuesto.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align:justify\"> Los da&ntilde;os en los estigmas que algunos insectos, como la <em>Diabr&oacute;tica<\/em> puedan causar, no s&oacute;lo afectar&aacute;n el tejido directamente da&ntilde;ado, sino que tambi&eacute;n afectar&aacute;n una cierta longitud del cabello remanente. En t&eacute;rminos generales; la longitud de los cabellos en las mazorcas da&ntilde;adas deber&aacute; ser de por lo menos un cent&iacute;metro y medio, para asegurar que suficiente tejido quede expuesto y lograr as&iacute; la polinizaci&oacute;n.\r\n<\/p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align:justify\"> El per&iacute;odo de receptividad de los cabellos del jilote para poder ofrecerle a los granos de polen una superficie propicia para su germinaci&oacute;n tiene una duraci&oacute;n aproximada de alrededor de 10 d&iacute;as a partir del brote de los mismos. Despu&eacute;s de los 10 d&iacute;as, la receptividad disminuye con rapidez. El alargamiento o elongaci&oacute;n del cabello continuar&aacute;&nbsp; hasta que se logre la polinizaci&oacute;n, aunque eventualmente este cesar&aacute;, a medida que envejezca el cabello que no haya sido fertilizado.\r\n<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"col-xs-12 col-md-4\"><img alt=\" Estigmas \" class=\"center-block img-responsive\" src=\"\/assets\/images\/articulos\/categoria1\/9Cereales\/art250-sexo-milpa\/estigmas.jpg \" \/>\r\n<table border=\"1\" class=\"table table-responsive\">\r\n\t<tbody>\r\n\t\t<tr>\r\n\t\t\t<td style=\"background-color: #0B3B0B; text-align:left\">\r\n\t\t\t<p style=\"text-align:justify\"><span style=\"color:#FFFFFF\"><strong> Figura 3. Estigmas funcionales de la flor femenina. Los cabellos de la base del jilote son los que normalmente salen primero, mientras que los de la punta son los últimos en salir.\r\n <\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align:justify\"><span style=\"color:#FFFFFF\"><strong> Fuente: University of Missouri.\r\n <\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/td>\r\n\t\t<\/tr>\r\n\t<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n\r\n\t\t\t<\/td>\r\n\t\t<\/tr>\r\n\t<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n","has_cost":0,"creation":"2016-05-13 21:16:51","updated":"2019-04-23 19:39:52","published":"2016-05-16 11:13:26","cost":0,"badge":"mxn"},"\/articulos\/cereales"]},{"file":"\/home\/intagri\/public_html\/vendor\/slim\/slim\/Slim\/Handlers\/Strategies\/RequestResponse.php","line":38,"function":"{closure}","args":[{},{},{"category":"cereales","article":"sexo-en-la-milpa-como-se-lleva-a-cabo","section":"comprar"}]},{"file":"\/home\/intagri\/public_html\/vendor\/slim\/slim\/Slim\/Routing\/Route.php","line":358,"function":"__invoke","class":"Slim\\Handlers\\Strategies\\RequestResponse","type":"->","args":[{},{},{},{"category":"cereales","article":"sexo-en-la-milpa-como-se-lleva-a-cabo","section":"comprar"}]},{"file":"\/home\/intagri\/public_html\/vendor\/slim\/slim\/Slim\/MiddlewareDispatcher.php","line":65,"function":"handle","class":"Slim\\Routing\\Route","type":"->","args":[{}]},{"file":"\/home\/intagri\/public_html\/vendor\/slim\/slim\/Slim\/MiddlewareDispatcher.php","line":65,"function":"handle","class":"Slim\\MiddlewareDispatcher","type":"->","args":[{}]},{"file":"\/home\/intagri\/public_html\/vendor\/slim\/slim\/Slim\/Routing\/Route.php","line":315,"function":"handle","class":"Slim\\MiddlewareDispatcher","type":"->","args":[{}]},{"file":"\/home\/intagri\/public_html\/vendor\/slim\/slim\/Slim\/Routing\/RouteRunner.php","line":68,"function":"run","class":"Slim\\Routing\\Route","type":"->","args":[{}]},{"file":"\/home\/intagri\/public_html\/vendor\/slim\/twig-view\/src\/TwigMiddleware.php","line":115,"function":"handle","class":"Slim\\Routing\\RouteRunner","type":"->","args":[{}]},{"file":"\/home\/intagri\/public_html\/vendor\/slim\/slim\/Slim\/MiddlewareDispatcher.php","line":121,"function":"process","class":"Slim\\Views\\TwigMiddleware","type":"->","args":[{},{}]},{"file":"\/home\/intagri\/public_html\/vendor\/slim\/slim\/Slim\/Middleware\/RoutingMiddleware.php","line":45,"function":"handle","class":"Psr\\Http\\Server\\RequestHandlerInterface@anonymous\u0000\/home\/intagri\/public_html\/vendor\/slim\/slim\/Slim\/MiddlewareDispatcher.php:108$10","type":"->","args":[{}]},{"file":"\/home\/intagri\/public_html\/vendor\/slim\/slim\/Slim\/MiddlewareDispatcher.php","line":121,"function":"process","class":"Slim\\Middleware\\RoutingMiddleware","type":"->","args":[{},{}]},{"file":"\/home\/intagri\/public_html\/vendor\/slim\/slim\/Slim\/Middleware\/ErrorMiddleware.php","line":76,"function":"handle","class":"Psr\\Http\\Server\\RequestHandlerInterface@anonymous\u0000\/home\/intagri\/public_html\/vendor\/slim\/slim\/Slim\/MiddlewareDispatcher.php:108$10","type":"->","args":[{}]},{"file":"\/home\/intagri\/public_html\/vendor\/slim\/slim\/Slim\/MiddlewareDispatcher.php","line":121,"function":"process","class":"Slim\\Middleware\\ErrorMiddleware","type":"->","args":[{},{}]},{"file":"\/home\/intagri\/public_html\/vendor\/slim\/slim\/Slim\/MiddlewareDispatcher.php","line":65,"function":"handle","class":"Psr\\Http\\Server\\RequestHandlerInterface@anonymous\u0000\/home\/intagri\/public_html\/vendor\/slim\/slim\/Slim\/MiddlewareDispatcher.php:108$10","type":"->","args":[{}]},{"file":"\/home\/intagri\/public_html\/vendor\/slim\/slim\/Slim\/App.php","line":199,"function":"handle","class":"Slim\\MiddlewareDispatcher","type":"->","args":[{}]},{"file":"\/home\/intagri\/public_html\/vendor\/slim\/slim\/Slim\/App.php","line":183,"function":"handle","class":"Slim\\App","type":"->","args":[{}]},{"file":"\/home\/intagri\/public_html\/index.php","line":261,"function":"run","class":"Slim\\App","type":"->","args":[]}]}